Decision Analysis Essay Example for Free

Decision Analysis EssayFinally, well-nigh typical problem classes are examined and some requirements for prototypical structures are discussed. An introduction to problem structuring Decision abridgment can be divided into four steps structuring the problem formulating inference and preference models eliciting probabilities and utilities and exploring the mathematical model results. Prac* This research was supported by a grant from the Department of Defense and was monitored by the Engineering Psychology Programs of the Office of Naval Research, under lose weightWhile writing this paper, the author discussed the problem of structuring extensively with Helmut Jungermann. The present version owes much to his thought. Please dont take footnote 3 likewise seriously. It is part of a footnote war between Ralph Keeney and me. ** Presently with the Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California, University Park, Los Angeles, CA 90007, (213) 741-6955. 12 D. von Winterfeldt /Structuring decision problems titioners of decision analysis generally agree that structuring is the intimately important and difficult step of the analysis.Yet, until recently, decision analytic research has all but ignored structuring, concentrating instead on questions of clay sculpture and elicitation. As a result, structuring was, and to some extent still is, considered the art part of decision analysis. This paper examines some attempts to turn this art into a science. Trees are the most common decision analytic structures. Decision trees, for example, represent the sequential aspects of a decision problem (see Raiffa 1968 Brown et al. 1974). Other examples are goal trees for the representations of values (Keeney and Raiffa 1976) and publication trees for the representation f inferential problem aspects (Kelly and Barclay 1973). In fact, trees so much dominate decision analytic structures that structuring is often considered synonymous to building a tree.

Organ Donation Essay Example for Free

pipe pipe organ tire outation Essay1. The purpose of this essay was to support my claim that organ donation has a jam of positive results. My plan with this essay to get the reader to be more than(prenominal) informed of the action and list some statistics associated with it. I hope that the reader, if they were not in full aware of the upshot, to do more research for themselves. 2. From this as pointment, I learned how to gather data to support my arguments. I already felt strongly about this pass on before writing on it. Though, I learned more about the underground black markets associated with organ harvesting.3. The only difficulties I had were trying to make every(prenominal)thing endure in the body of my paragraphs. Also, how to incorporate the down side of the issue. The editing part wasnt too hard for me. 4. I enjoyed writing on a topic that I fully support as an individual. I excessively enjoyed reading articles related to the topic on how a life was dramati cally improved or renderd. I in addition, learned to better support my claims. 5. I decided to write on this topic due to the f routine that I am write up to be an organ giver myself. I am not currently discussing this topic in another course. I was not fully aware of the topic until I fully researched it before deciding to become one. 6. There is not anything else I would like for you to know.Should More Attention Be Given To harmonium gratuity?When it comes to organ donation, it is a very touchy subject for a lot of people. The majority of them are hesitating about registering to become an organ donor because they are usually ill informed about the process. Besides helping to save or drastically improve someones life, you can similarly give some kind of comfort to their grieving families. There are so many organs and tissues that can be donated and one can also be a living mortal in order to do it. A sad statistic about the organ donation waiting list is that every 48 hours , someone dies while waiting for an organ and never receiving it (Newton). So one has to wonder if the general public was more aware of this issue they would be more unstrained to sign up. Although in that location are some religious sects have some stipulations against organ donations, the majority actually condone it to be an act of charity. Though the subject of organ donation is a very sensitive issue, there are many advantages to them being performed. The fact that it only takes one organ donor to saveover eight lives is simply amazing and that the donor is able to give comfort to grieving families and improve someones style of life. Financial or celebrity status has no bearing on determining who is able to receive a transplant in the U.S.Also, the system for twinned donors and recipients being regulated by the Federal Government should give people some ease about any wrong doing involving the sale of organs in the United States (Burande). An Ethics Committee was in fact pu t into place by organizations that specialize in the procurement of organs and every region and infirmary has one. Hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, pancreas, small intestines, and also the eyes could be donated and transplants have a highly successful transfer rate of up to 80 to 90 percent (Burande). A person can be a living person and still donate certain parts of organs and bone marrow (Burande). Children can so far become organ donors with their parents consent and the family pays no bills associated with any kind of organ donation. The donor persons medical examination history is more significant than a persons age, so someone should never think that they are too old to eligible to donate (Organ Donation Dont permit These Myths Confuse You).A person can even donate their entire body for the benefit of research and the use of medical education. A lot of families are concerned that if their deceased loved one donates, that they leave alone not be able to have an open casket fu neral and that is simply not true (Organ Donation Dont let These Myths Confuse You). The respect of the deceased and their families is one of the top priorities when it comes to organ donation. The process also involves many steps, with the beginning(a) being a referral when a patient is about to pass away to confirm if they are or are not a registered donor. Then a medical evaluation is done to see if the organs are suitable. After a declaration of death is made by the doctor, the next of kin signs a consent form. After transplant coordinators confirm the death with a medical examiner or coroner to see whether its under jurisdiction, the transplant sawbones finalizes the recipient as a proper match. The work of the surgical removal team is also overseen by the transplant coordinator.Last, after its all utter and done, letters are sent out to the donors family, relevant doctors and nurses informing them of the outcome of the donation that was done. Just like any other medical proc edure, there are some issues that do exist. Over 115,000 people are currently waiting for an organ in the U.S and every 48 hours, aperson dies waiting to receive an organ and not getting one (Burande). Each year over a million people need organs to save or dramatically improve their life. There is also a black market that exists for some organs, especially kidneys, so naturally people are hesitant due to its unethical prospects (Adomaitis). This tends to happen more frequently in countries where the population is poor.Organs from living donors are transplanted from people that live in poverty into more prominent citizens that live elsewhere all due to the need for money. A new study was done out of Alberta, Canada that Canadians might be more willing to sign up to be registered donors if they were offered some kind of monetary compensation for their families (Verner). The families would be offered a tax break or help with funeral expenses and of course the process would be done lega lly and all safety precautions would be followed. The only problem that is foreseen from that is how to establish the cost of an organ when life itself is precious.When it comes to the subject of organ donation, there are many religious aspects concerning beliefs from various religions. Although, many religions actually encourage it because they consider it be an act of charity, but with stipulations when it comes to a person doing it. Jehovahs Witnesses believe that if a person decides to donate, all organs and tissues must be drained of blood first (Adomaitis). The Amish approves it only if the recipients life will be definitely improved or saved (Adomaitis). Though, they are not opposed to it, Mennonites leave the decision to the individual or his/her family members.In closing, no subject area how sensitive a person is when it comes to the subject of organ donation, it never hurts to fully research the topic. He or she might have to come upon making a decision one day concerning the matter and they should be fully informed of all the pros and cons. This concludes my essay on the issue of organ donation.Annotated BibliographyBurande, Abhay. Organ Donation Facts and Statistics. fall 21, 2011, Retrieved from http//www.buzzle.com/articles/organ-donation-facts-and-statistics.htmlThere are many statistical data to support the pros of organ transplants.The process is overseen by a committee in the U.S. that ensures its strict adherence.Adomaitis, Mary Beth. Cons of Organ Donating. Retrieved from http//dyinglovetoknow.com/ConsofOrganDonatingBesides the pros of organ donation there are many cons associated with this issue. Black markets for organs and taking advantage of the poor to help the rich are sometimes concerns for many.Verner, Amy. Compensating Organ Donors Could Increase Donation Rates, Study Finds. The Globe Mail, Published Wednesday, Nov 07, 2012, Retrieved from http//www/the globeandmail.com/life/the-hot-button/compensating-organ-donors-could-increase -donations.htmlStudies have shown that people in Canada are more inclined to sign donor cards if they were monetarily compensated. The only issue is that of how to put a value on human life.Newton, Joshua. How Does The General Public View Posthumous Organ Donation? A Meta-Synthesis of the Qualitative Literature. BMC Public Health 2011, 11791. Retrieved from http//www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/11/791There are many individuals who are unwilling become organ donors posthumously, thus creating a disparity between the supply and demand for transplants. A meta-synthesis of literature was therefore conducted to determine the views of the general public concerning the issue.Organ Donation Dont let These Myths Confuse You, The Mayo Clinic, Retrieved from http//www.mayoclinic.com/health/organ-donation/FL00077Many people are ill-informed about the organ donation process. This article lists many myths that are associated with organ donation and the truths to straighten out on those myths.

Components Of A Computer System Cpu Information Technology Essay

Components Of A Computer System Cpu Information Technology EssayThe central processing unit is the serving of a reckoner system that carries out the instructions of a computing device weapons platform. It is main part carrying out the computers roles. The central processing unit transfers out each instruction of the program in order, to perform the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/ takings operations of the system.The CPU has many different purposes which can be moving data from one location to an separate, building decisions and jumping to a new set of orders based on those decisions. The CPUs speed is a measure of MHz (megahertz) or more recently gigacycle (gigahertz). A chip with a megahertz rating of 900 MHz would be able to complete 900Million cycles every second.The graphic symbols of CPUAMD (Advanced Micro Devices)Intel Celeron pound up (Random Access Memory) pound off is a memory facility which provides space for your computer to read and write data to be accesse d by the CPU (central processing unit). When people mention to a computers memory, they usually mean its RAM. The programs and data that we use are stored in the RAM temporarily so that the processor can access them fast. RAM is employ to freight and run programs or applications on a computers are in operation(p) system. Extra RAM means more applications and programs can be run simultaneously. The speed is careful in MHz, (or megahertz). The capacity of RAM is calculated in bits, bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes, terabytes and the typical capacity of RAM in a PC is 512MB to 8GB.There are other types of RAM which areSDRAM (synchronous dram)DDR(double data ratter)Rambus Dram (RDRMM)read-only memory (Read Only Memory)Is a class of memory board media used in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware. The BIOS software is built into the PC, and i s the number 1 code run by a PC when reasoned on (boot firmware). The primary function of the BIOS is to load and start an operating system. BIOS software is stored on a non-volatile ROM chip built into the system on the mother board. The first job for the BIOS is to initialize and identify system devices such as the video debunk card, keyboard and cringe, expectant disk, CD/DVD drive and other severeware.These are the types of ROMMask-Programmed ROM (MROM)Programmable ROM (PROM)Erasable-Programmable ROM (EPROM)Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM) remark devicesInput devices are any piece of computer hardware equipment used to provide data and give in knowledge to the computer. They allow us to enter the information and data into the computer.E.g.MouseIs an input device which inputs information by clicking the mouse and being able to move the arrow in the monitor by victimisation the mouse. Mouse can display mainframe data records that contain a leading 4 byte record length c ounter. With proper options, mouse can adjoin carriage returns to fixed length records.Types of mouselaser mousemechanical mousecordless mouseKEYBORADThe set of typewriter like keys that enables you to enter data into a computer. Computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys. It assert the computer and purposes includes a plurality of sets of two or more keys arranged for receiving the tips of the leaf of a hand of an operator, the keys of each set have such a small superficial touch area and are clustered together. So as to be substantially comprehended and selectively operated by a single finger tip of an operator. There different types of keyboardsErgonomic KeyboardsWireless keyboardsIlluminated keyboards output DevicesOutput Devices are used to communicate the outcomes of data processing carried out by information to the computer to the outside world. Which we get information out of the computer.E.g.Printers pull up stakes print anything that in on that is on the monitor onto melodic theme. This can be pictures, words and numbers. admonisherMonitor is a device that displays images or symbols generated by computers, an output device that is a part of your computer display system. TheyServe as the visual display to help you navigate your computer. excessively to display text and graphics, produced by a computer. The resolution is the measurement of the number of pixels that a computer displays, also called a computer monitor, can show at one meter. Monitors that display more pixels offer a sharper, brighter image. Monitors are measured in butt againstes, diagonally from top left to bottom right.Types of monitorsCRT (Cathode Ray Tube) MonitorLCD (Liquid Crystal Display) MonitorPrintersPrinter is a peripheral which produces a text and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic form, usually on physical print media such as paper or transparencies. It lets you to get a hard copy of a document, or picture . DPI (dots per inch) most printers print 600 dpi printers print 600 tiny little dots across one inch and 600 dots vertically for one inch. The higher the resolution of your printer or image setter, the greater detail you can print and the better appearance of your output. The speed of printers is measured in print-per-minute (PPM) for example, laser printer ratings range from 6 to 15 ppm, inkjets are rated 4 ppm and up for black text, and photo-quality inkjets range from 0.3 to 12 ppm, depending on the job.Types of printersLaser printersink-jet printersDot matrix printersDisk Storage devices (Backing store)Disk Drives are used to record information from the computer onto a floppy disk or CD. sturdy Disk Drive disfranchised disk drive (HDD) main storehouse used to permanently store all including the operating system, data, files and programs on the computer. Most hard drives are permanently stored in an internal drive bay at the front of the computer. Capacity per HDD increasing fr om 3.75 megabytes to greater than 1 terabyte. The typical capacity of hard disk in a PC is uses a 400 to 500 GB drive.Types of Hard DiskDesktop Hard Disk Types 3.5, IDE and Sata Interfaces laptop computer Hard Disk Types2.5, 1.8, IDE, Sata, SCSIServer Hard Disk types3.5 Sata, SCSIOptical Disk Storage CD/DVD/Blu-RayCD DiskA sign up Disc (CD) is an opthalmic disc used to store digital data. It was originally developed to store sound recordings exclusively, but later it also allowed the preservation of other types of data.It is used to store data, video or music. So that makes it a storage device. A standard CD has a capacity of about 74 proceeding of standard CD audio music. There are extended CDs that can actually exceed this limit and pack more than 80 minutes on a disk. CDs are capable of storing up to 700 mb.The types of CDs areCD-ROM is a pre-pressed compact disc that contains data accessible to, but not writable by, a computer for data storage and music playback.CD-R a CD-R (Co mpact Disc-Recordable) is a variation of the Compact Disc invented by Philips and Sony. CD-R is a Write formerly Read Many (WORM) optical medium, though the whole disk does not have to be entirely written in the same session.CD-Rewritable disk, a type of CD disk that enables you to write onto it in multiple sessions. One of the problems with CD-R disks is that you can only write to them once.DVD DiskDVD (Digital Video Disc) is an optical disc storage media format, which are of the same dimensions as compact discs (CDs), but are capable of storing almost seven times as much data. The storage capacity of a DVD is approximately 4.7 GB (gigabytes). A dual layer doubles the storage but requires a dual-layer DVD player/ recorder to use the dual-layer media.The types of DVDSDVD-RDVD-RWDVD-ROMBlu-Ray DiskBlu-ray Disc is an optical disc storage medium designed to supersede the DVD format. The format defines as its standard physical media a 12cm (same as DVDs and CDs), 25 GB per-layer optica l disc, with dual layer discs (50 GB) the norm for feature-length video discs and additional layers possible later. The capacity of Blu-ray disk is 25GB (single-layer) 50GB (dual-layer).USB Memory StickUSB flash drives are computer devices that inputs information that is saved on the USB and inputs it in to the computer when you insert the USB. Also typically removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than a floppy disk. USB drives range in capacity from megabytes up to 256GB and offer much more storage than writable CDs and DVDs.Operating systemIs software, containing of programs and data, which runs on computers and manages the computer hardware and runs common services for active carrying out of various application software. Operating systems are responsible for everything from the control and allocation of memory to recognizing input from external devices and transmitting output to computer displays. They also manage files on computer hard drives and control periphera ls, like printers and scanners. An operating system also has a vital role to play in security. Its job includes preventing unauthorized users from accessing the computer system.Examples of operating systemsWindows VistaWindows 7Task 2Types of computersDesktop PC (personal computer)Is a personal computer any common-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and original sales price make it useful for individuals and which is planned to be operated instantly by an end user with no principal computer operator3 common applications of desktop PCAccess the internetMost time used in offices e.g. Microsoft office used to alto of things like writing letters, posters etc.Starting your own home business, e.g. selling items through online auction websites.LaptopA laptop computer or simply laptop, is called a notebook, is a small personal computer designed for portability. Usually all of the interface hardware needed to operate the laptop, such as USB ports, graphics card, sound channel, etc., is built in to a single unit. Laptops hold high capacity batteries that can power the device for general periods of time, attractive portabilityThe main purpose of a laptop computer is to be portable.3 common applications of LaptopCan be used away from an outlet using a rechargeable battery.Connect to any mesh, including wireless net bailiwickAnswer email on the train, plane, or passenger piece of tail of a carPalmtopA computer small enough to hold in one hand and operate with the other. Also called a hand top, these ultra-small computers whitethorn have particular keyboards or keypads for data entry applications.3 common applicationsSend an emailCreate text messageAccess internet cyberspace ServerA network server is a computer planned to process requests and carry data to other computers over a local network or the Internet by using the same network.3 common applicationsWeb server a static content to a Web web browser by loading a file from a disk and serving it across the networ k to a users Web browser.Chat Server enables a life-size number of users to exchange information in an environment similar to Internet newsgroups that offer real-time discussion capabilities.Fax Servers a is an ideal solution for organizations smell to reduce incoming and outgoing telephone resources but that need to fax actual documents.SupercomputerA supercomputer is a computer which performs an amount of speed which is far supra of other computers. Known constantly changing the world of computing. Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks such as problems involving important physics, weather forecasting, climate research, molecular poser .A particular class of problems, known as Grand Challenge problems, are problems whose full solution requires semi-infinite computing resources.Task 3Diagram flows around a computer systemBacking store(Disk storage devices)CPUCentral Processing UnitMain memory(RAM)Output devicesInput devicesWhen clicking on the mouse or ty ping on the keyboard its sends information to the CPU.Once the information is recognise on to the CPU, The CPU sends informations on to the output device and will appear both on the printer or monitorWhen the PC is turned on the RAM sends information to the CPU and sends information to the backing storeWhen you save work on to the PC the backing store saves it sends the information to the CPU then to the main memory and is saved there

Dementia Needs, Types and Treatments

Dementia Needs, Types and TreatmentsSpecific needs of the older personINTRODUCTIONMAIN clayDementia is a term used to describe symptoms such as loss of memory, language, motor skills, judgment and other intellectual functions caused by permanent disparage or death of the headings nerve cells. (Alzheimers foundation of America, 2014)Most dementias are reversible. Reversible dementias are caused by nutritional deficiencies or infection or from a bleed on the brain or the side effect of a medication the symptoms of these dementias deal be stopped or reversed as considerable as the underlying causes can be treated.Dementia consists of 3 coiffesEarly stage (difficulty concentrating, poor orientation, decreased memory, withdrawal from friends and family, poor socializing skills and denial of their symptoms)This stage usually lasts up to two years.Mid stage (major memory loss, node needs swear out carrying out their activities of daily living (ADLS), they can get govern of their b owels or bladder, ability to speak declines, agitation occurs, compulsions or anxiety)This stage lasts up to two and a half years.Late stage (people in this stage lose the ability to communicate or speak, they need assistance with nearly all their ADLS, they often lose the ability to walk)This stage usually lasts up to two and a half years.There are many types of dementia but I have listed the four major ones below and have given the physiological and mental changes that occur for the older person with these dementias.Type of DementiaPhysiologicalPsychologicalClients needsAlzheimersProblems with speaking.Decreased judgement.Difficulty solving problems or puzzles.Disorientation in familiar surroundings.Depression.Psychosis.Agitation.Sleep disorder.Resistance to care.Memory loss.Assess and reverse agitation factors.Memory therapy.Language therapy.VascularDifficulty finding the remediate words.Confusion and disorientation.Aggressiveness.Memory loss.Depression.Slowness of taught.Hallu cinations.Memory therapy.Speech therapy.Lewy personateConfusion followed by alertness.Tremors.Shuffling step.Rigidity.Fainting-loss of consciousness.Hallucinations in touch and feelings.Visual hallucinations.Sleep disorder.Aggression.Depression.Speech therapy. corporal therapy which includes gait training.Front temporalLanguage comprehension declines.Tongue tie occurs.Ability to read or write is impaired.Lack of co-ordination.Shaking.Balance problems.Eye twitching. sinew spasms and rigidity.Inability to relate to people.Personality changes.Speech therapy.As a carer it is very important to understand the Lewy bole dementia indisposition and its symptoms so that the appropriate treatments can be implemented. The carer should also act as an advocate to ensure the client with dementiaDue to word limitations I will only be discussing Lewy tree trunk dementia in detail below.LEWY BODY DEMENTIAIn the early 1900s scientist FREIDERICK H. LEWY discovered that the brains activities was di srupted by deposits of abnormal protein while he was researching Parkinsons disease. The Lewy body proteins were found in the brain stem where they kill off the neurotransmitter Dopamine ca victimisation symptoms similar to Parkinsons symptoms. In Lewy body dementia other areas of the brain are affected by these proteins and that is what creates the difference between both Parkinsons and Lewy body dementia. When the protein attacks the brain chemical acetylcholine it causes the client to suffer disruption in their thinking, demeanour and perception. Lewy body dementia can be its own disease or it could act in conjunction with brain changes in Alzheimers disease and Parkinsons disease. This is why Lewy body disease can be miss diagnosed and the client ends up been told they have Parkinsons disease instead. When diagnosing Lewy body dementia an undergo member of the multidisciplinary team should carry out a diagnostic evaluation of the client. This evaluation should include both phy sical and neurological examinations. The client should also be examined on their language skills, memory skills and their functioning skills. The clients family should also be interviewed as they might have noticed changes in the client which would be helpful in their diagnosis. The client should also undergo a MRI or CT scan to determine what areas of the brain are affected. Blood tests whitethorn also help in the clients clinical diagnosis. Lewy body dementia can only be conclusively diagnosed when the client has passed, through a post-mortem autopsy. Unfortunately there is no known cure for Lewy body dementia and treatment only relieves symptoms. People live up to seven years with the disease but some have lived up to twenty years with the disease.Medication is not always the best option for clients with Lewy body because what works with one client might not work for another client. It is also important to know that clients with Lewy body are extremely sensitive and may react neg atively to medication. If using medication then there are different medications for the different symptoms.Cognitive symptomsCholinesterase inhibitors (Aricept, Exelon, and Raza dyne) are used as they are drugs that increase the level of acetylcholine in the brain. Acetylcholine is a chemical which helps in memory and learning functions. These were developed to treat Alzheimers clients but it has been discovered they work better on Lewy body clients.Movement symptomsLevodopa is a drug which is also used on Parkinsons clients. This medication is only used if the symptoms are severe.Visual hallucinationsAntipsychotic medication (haloperidol) which are tranquillizers that block the dopamine receptors in the brain are used but only if the hallucinations are upsetting or disruptive as the side effects can be severe.Rem sleep behaviour disorderMelatonin or clonazepam medication can be used and have been proven to be very effective.50% of clients with lewy body dementia who are treated wit h any antipsychotic medication may experience severe neuroleptic sensitivity, such as worsening cognition, heavy sedation, increase or possibly irreversible parkinsonism, or symptoms resembling neuroleptic malignant syndrome which can be fatal. (Lewy body dementia association, 2014)Non-medical treatmentsSpeech therapyThis may help the client with their give tongue to volume. It is also helpful in clients who have swallowing difficulties and may improve their facial muscular strength.Physical therapyThis includes strengthening, flexibility and cardiovascular exercises as well as gait training.Occupational therapyThis may help the client in promoting his independence and maintain their skills.Individual and family therapyThis can be useful in managing worked up and behavioural symptoms and help with any concerns the family might have for the future.Support groupsThese are helpful for the client and the carers as they can help in day to day frustrations and provide emotional support f or all.

Premature Failure Of Road Network

Premature Failure Of Road Net workBahria town ltd started its development works in 1996 as a joint partner with Bahria effectation initially British capital of South Carolina were the consultants on the project. The extraordinary progress rate and high quality consultancy work of British Columbia (pvt) ltd was thought to be a big hurdle in the progress rate, veritable(a)tually the agreement with the consultants terminated and Bahria township (pvt) Ltd course of studyed its own consultant wing. alas the consultancy wing failed to develop beca physical exertion of incompetent individuals who faecal matter really invest their heart and souls to address core issues .Site management and technical / top supervision issues were ignored .Today Bahria Town is facing problem of premature adversity in its alley meshwork.Most of the path network has not been under(a) projected calling for which it has been useed even then pass failures atomic number 18 prominent .Most common failu res depictive be settlement of road, flexural gibeing, weathering of the road network. The mechanism of road failure is sooner complex and it is wordy to identify the root cause of failure.The approach adopted was to analyze road network truly depictive of premature paving failures, the representative sections were haveed from the road network under interpret .Various field of honor and laboratory test were per gradeed on each section to determine the cause of premature sidewalk failures.The probe revealed that mix produced from mineral pitch plant fails to meet specifications. The concretion of HMA and substitutesequent road horizontal go forths is not comely. The source gradation for aggregate bow is improper .The Plasticity of fines is not in allowance account come out. paving structural design depths were not executed on site besides poor workmanship and improper patching procedures.Keywords Premature Failure, Flexural snap bean, Weathering, Source gradation. p arturiencyI certify that research work titled To investigate the causes of Premature Failure of Road Network of Bahria Town to propose its Remedial Measuresis my own work. The work has not been presented elsewhere for assessment. Where stuff has been used from another(prenominal) sources it has been properly acknowledged/ referred.Tehseen Ellahi2k9-MSc-Trans-05AcknowledgementsThis research work is obviously a result of the initial encouragement and nourish in admission to the MS Transportation (Taxila) by Ehsan ul Haq, the Director General Planning and Design, Bahria Town (pvt) Ltd. Extraordinary help and support form Rana Zulfikar Ahmed caravanserai , Site Manager Bahria Town (pvt) Ltd.Continuous encouragement, and valuable input from Dr. M. A. Kamal, Director Taxila Institute of Transportation Engineering (TITE) and Dean, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology (UET) Taxila. on that point guidance, comments and suggestions fro m time to time, be gratefully acknowledged.1.2.2 Rigid PavementsIn rigid sidewalks the stress is transmitted to the sub-grade through beam/slab effect. Rigid pavages contain sufficient beam forte to be able to bridge everyplace the localise sub-grade failures and aras of inadequate support.Factors effecting Pavement PerformanceThere are numerous factors influencing the performance of a paving, the following cardinal are considered the most influential (Transportation research board, England April 1985)1.3.1 TrafficTraffic is the most essential factor affecting paving material performance. The performance of pavages is mostly affected by the loading scale, arrangement and the number of load repeats. The damage caused per pass to a paving material by an axle is defined relative to the damage per pass of a precedent axle load, which is defined as a 80 kN single axle load (E80). Thus a pavement is designed to withstand a certain number of standardised axle load repetitio ns that depart result in a certain terminal condition of deterioration.(Kamal M.A. et al., 2009)1.3.2 MoistureMoisture signifi freightertly reduces the supporting ability of gravel materials, peculiarly the sub grade. Moisture enters the pavement mental synthesis through capillary action. The resulting action is the wet surface of particles, excessive movement of particles and dislodgment which ultimately results in pavement failures. (Terrel 1990)1.3.3 Sub gradeThe sub grade is the land layer of spetroleum that supports the wheel loads. If the sub grade is not strong enough the pavement will show flexibility and finally the pavement will fail. Pavement will fail to perform ideally if the variation in particles behavior is not catered for in the design.1.3.4 Construction qualityPavement performance is affected by poor quality manifestation, inaccurate pavement thicknesses, and adverse moisture conditions. These conditions stress the need for experient staff and the importance of good inspection and quality control procedures during saying.Pavement performance is dependent on where, when and how support is applied. No matter how good the pavement is built, it will deteriorate with time based upon the mentioned factors. The timing of maintenance is very important, if a pavement is allowed to deteriorate to a very poor condition, as illustrated by point B, then the added life compared with point A, is typically about 2 to 3 years. This added life is about 10 percent of the total life. The apostrophize of repairing the road at B is four times of the cost required at A. The delay of maintenance hold implications, in that for the cost of repairing one poorly weathered road (Point B), four roads at point A would have to be postponed, which would mean that in a few years the rehabilitation cost could be 16 times as often. Thus, differing maintenance because of budget constraints will result in a significant financial penalty within a few years.(www.nra.co. za/live/ heart and soul.php)HistoryBahria town is a modern township intend on an inspiration drawn from the home of American Society of complaisant engineers i.e the city of Reston, Virginia. The designing of its town ship is based on the most modern and strict criterion.It is located between the GT road and Islamabad Bahria town borders effort Park on the northern side and is bounded to the south and west by Soan river and the Korang respectively.Town planning for Bahria Town has been done taking full reinforcement of the layout of the natural ground. Roads have been designed according to the traffic intensity rush hours. They have been standardized as 30, 40, 50, 60, 80 and Main Boulevards with the configuration of Pavement sidewalks and green areas.(www.bahriatown.com/index.php)Problem StatementBahria Town (pvt) Ltd development represents a unique mark of distinction for Pakistan. Over a period of decade Bahria Town has emerged as Asias largest private property developers.The dilemma is that the capital involved is huge and to meet market demands common Engineering practices quality assurances are being ignored on account of time savings.One of the major problem , that Bahria Town that face today is relate to premature failure of road network.ObjectivesThe main objective of the study was to highlight the causes of pavement failures and to propose the remedial measures. mannerologyReconnaissance survey in study area to identify problems.Selection of test sections based upon road classification and distresses for deep testing analysis.Extraction of samples from the test sections for various laboratory testing.Comparison of various parameters between damaged and undamaged portions of test sections.Recommendations on the terms of investigation.Chapter 3Chapter 3Introduction to Study AreaPavement valuation ProcessPavement evaluation is the first step in the development of pavement rehabilitation alternatives for the project .It is the process of learning the existing pavement system to understand the extent and the cause of problems prior to developing a rehabilitation plan.(www.pavementinteractive.org)Evaluation at Road Network LevelMonitoring of the network is carried out at on a network level to define the status of an sinless pavement network as part of the pavement management system .To achieve the said objective the road network of Bahria Town was divided in different regularizes .Preliminary reconnaissance survey was carried out to access the pavement condition of road network .The object was to confine the study and help prioritize and select the evaluation at the project levels. The road network under study is cause valley. (Design report on Bahria Town, ESS.I.AAR Consultants)The justification behind selecting this study zone is that this zone is fully developed and in the possession of the residents therefore it is to a greater extent realistic to study the road network performance of this zone.HistoryThe idea of dri ve vale was conceptualized in 2000 confirming to planning parameters of the cities of Ruston, Virginia, USA. Ruston being the American society of civil engineers has been planned in the most beautiful manner, the next year Safari vale lunched another housing project. One of the aims of lunching this schema was to stomach a modern housing scheme with all the amenities for the general public at an affordable cost. Any middle class person desirous of buying a plot in Islamabad/Rawalpindi could not do so as the price in Islamabad/Rawalpindi is beyond the reach of the common man.. This scheme is planned and designed for the low-income people of the country to provide them affordable housing.(www.bahriatown.com/index.php)LocationThe Safari Valley is located in Southern part of Rawalpindi City, adjacent to Takht Pari forest on Japan Road. This site falls in Mauza Gali. The main access to this scheme is through Japan Road from G.T. Road, 3 Km from High Court towards Lahore.120 capacious newly constructed Bahria Expressway along River Soan is another access to this project which is correct a year ago.(www.bahriatown.com/index.php)UntitledFigure 3 Study area Location in road networkRoad NetworkThe proposed colony has been planned according to the contemporary principles of planning and design criteria of Tehsil Municipal Administration (TMA) for private housing schemes. Following three types of roads has been proposed.Primary Roads 120 Feet wide of the mark 80 Feet wideCollector Roads 65 Feet wideStreets 40 Feet wideThe safari valley has 37.880 km of 40 wide roads, 6.083km of 65 wide roads, 1.23 km of 80 wide roads and 4.0 km of 120 wide roads.General ConsiderationsIt is desired by the consultant to provide the sub grade durability of the area in general for the construction of the internal roads. The purpose of the structural design is to limit the stresses induced in the sub grade by the traffic to a safe level at which the sub grade deformation is insignificant whilst at the same time ensuring that the road pavement layers themselves do not fail in any way within a specified period of time .In most design methods it is assumed that the routine and periodic maintenance is carried out during the design period of the road and that at the end of the design period , relatively low level of detoriation has occurred.(Structural design of Pavement at Safari valley, SS Soil explore Consultants)For the design of the flexible pavement the following factors should be kept in mind for guidanceEconomic ConsiderationsEffect of climate variation in the material PropertiesConstruction ControlUncertainty in traffic forecastingVariability in material properties and construction control is generally much greater than desired by the engineer and mustiness be taken into account explicitly in the design process. In practice only it is genuinely the variability of the sub grade strong suit that is considered and all other factors are controlled by setting out minimum acceptable values for the key properties by means of the specifications.Nevertheless, it is the task of the designer to estimate the likely variations in layer thickness and material strengths so that the realistic target values and tolerances can be set in the specifications to ensure the satisfactory road performances can be guaranteed as far as possible.Design basisThe purpose of the structural design is to limit the stresses induced in the sub grade by the traffic. Estimating the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles that will use the road over the selected design life assessing the strength of the sub grade soil over which the road is built by selecting the most economical combination of the pavement materials and layer thickness that will provide the satisfactory service over the design life of the pavement when appropriate maintenance is carried out.In following paragraphs the instalment layers of a flexible pavement are referred i n these termsSurfacingThis is the upper most layer of the pavement and will normally consist of bituminous surface dressing or a premixed bituminous material .When premixed materials are laid in two layers these are known as wearing sort and base course (or binder course)Road BaseThis is the main load paste layer of the pavement .It will normally consist of crushed rock candy or gravel ,or a gravelly soil ,decomposed rocks, sand and sandy clays stabilized with cement ,lime or bitumen.Sub BaseThis is the secondary load spreading layer underlying the road base .It will normally consist of material of lower quality than that used in the road base such(prenominal) as un processed natural gravels ,gravel-sand or gravel-sand-clay. This layer also serves as a spreading layer preventing contamination of the road base by the sub grade materialCapping LayerWhere very infirm soils are encountered capping layer is sometimes necessary. This may consist of better quality sub grade material im ported from elsewhere or existing sub grade material improved by mechanical and lime stabilization.Sub GradeThis is the upper layer of the natural soil, which may be undisturbed local materials or may be soil excavated elsewhere and designated as fill. In either campaign it is compacted during the construction to give it adequate stability.TrafficIn the present chance no definite traffic pattern can be estimated as the construction period extends to a longer span .During the construction stage, the maximum traffic even over loaded trucks carrying mostly the construction material would apply. After the construction phase .the internal roads of the proposed project are subjected only to the light car traffic, which have very petite destructive effect.The Sub grade causationFollowing is the recommendations for the structural design of the bituminous surfaced roads for the proposed project. The existing sub grade at the site comprises of A 4 soil with PI range of 5 to 8.Determinin g the sub grade strength is necessary for the road construction and required by the design engineer for the internal light traffic roads, which are required to carry up to (assumed traffic) 0.5 million cumulative equivalent standard axles in one direction for the design life of 10 Years. landing field investigation and SamplingAll the field tests necessary for the design of the flexible pavements have been carried out .Test pit locations were selected so that overall picture of the sub surface can be examined .To do this samples from the different locations collected for the classification and California bearing ratio (CBR) .Following field and laboratory tests have been carried out in the detailField dumbness and moisture contentGradation analysisSieve analysisHydrometric analysisHydrometric analysisAASHTO Soil ClassificationLaboratory compaction testLaboratory CBR on soaked conditionsAppreciation of the sub grade conditionThe strength of the sub grade is commonly assessed in the form of California bearing ratio of the sub grade soil and is dependent on the type of the soil, its density and its moisture contentThe likely in situ strength of the sub grade is difficult to assess directly but its value can be obtained from the relationship between CBR, density and moisture content which must be measured in the laboratory for the soil in question, and form the knowledge of in situ density and equilibrium moisture content of the soil under the road. The density of the sub grade soil can be controlled under the road within limits by compaction at suitable moisture content at the time of the construction. The equilibrium moisture content of the sub grade soil is governed by the local climate and the depth of the water table infra the road surfaces.For designing the thickness of the road pavement, the strength of the sub grade should be taken as that of the sub grade soil at the moisture content equal to the wettest moisture condition likely to occur in the sub gra de after the road is opened to traffic.In the present case, field as well as the laboratory testing of different locations was carried out for gradation index and strength parameters and soaked CBR etc. The result of these tests are attached at the end of the reportThe CBR test shows the value of 3.5% having the representative design value of 90% and 95% modified by the AASHTO density .CBR value is considered to be unsatisfactory for the design of the flexible pavement .Therefore it is strongly recommended to provide capping layer over the existing sub grade soil to provide structural support and improve drainpipe conditions at the site. The thickness comes out to be 8 inches.Design RecommendationsThe pavement design of the internal roads of safari valley was calculated using the AASHTO Interim guide .Details of which are belowMethod 01Out of the different methods available for calculating the road design, which cater for the repetition of the standard axle loads during the design life of the various traffic configurations expected on the road .This method caters for the site conditions and type of traffic likely to use the roads after the construction. The pavement design has been worked out as per Overseas Road Note No 31 (Transport and road research Laboratory, TRRL Road personal line of credit 31)The Local soil is moderately plastic for which average soaked CBR value was calculated to be 3.5 % and the same has been incorporated in the design calculations .In case of borrow /selected fill material is to be used for the making of the roads .The Laboratory CBR for that soil should not be less than 3.5 % against 96 hrs soaking.Method 02The pavement design of the internal roads of different categories is calculated using the simplified method as given in civil engineering enchiridion by Leonard Church Urquhart of which is given below.Design ProcedureUsing the graph (annexure A) against the clayey silt conforming to A-4 Soil and CBR of 3.5 % the total thickne ss of pavement above sub base is 15 inches. Keeping a minimum thickness of 8 inches for the base course and the wearing surface the sub base is required to be 7 inches.Since method 1 gave higher values method 1 was adopted.Flexible Pavement DistressesRoads have become important in our lives as a sole mean of communication. Modern roads are smooth, so people can travel easily from one place to another. Maintenance of road network is very important to ensure its continued efficiency and reliability. Normally roads are damaged collectible to environment affects, vehicular loadings and moisture.(Asphalt Institute , MS 16)Asphalt pavement distresses can generally be classified as one of the following typeCracking distorted shape declineSkid hazardSurface intercession distressesDistresses caused can be think toWheel loadsEnvironmentPoor drainageMaterial deficienciesConstruction related deficienciesExternal causes(Utilities)CrackingCracking takes many forms .To make proper repairs, it i s first necessary to determine the cause of cracking .Maintenance procedures generally depend upon the cause of distress, the crack width and the amount of cracking in the affected area.Reflective cracksThese are cracks in mineral pitch overlays that reflect the crack pattern in the pavement structure underneath. The pattern may be longitudinal, transverse, diagonal or block. Reflective cracks are caused by vertical and horizontal movements in the pavement beneath the overlay, induced by expansion and contraction with temperature or moisture changes. They can also be caused by traffic or earth movement or by outlet of moisture in sub grade by high clay content.Edge cracksThese are longitudinal cracks 30 cm or so .They are caused due to lack of lateral support, settlement or yielding of the material beneath the cracked area .This may be the result of poor drainage ,frost heave or shrinkage from drying of the adjoining earth. They may be accelerated by concentration of heavy traffic near the edge of the pavement as well as heavy vegetation near the pavement edge.Block CrackingThey are series of interconnected cracks forming the series of large blocks, 1 to 3 m. Frequently they are caused by volume change of the fine aggregate asphalt mix that have a high content of low keenness asphalt and adsorptive aggregate ,daily temperature cycles and aged asphalt. Block cracking is not load related.Alligator CrackingThey are cracks that constitute to form series of blocks .They can be caused by various reasons such as excess deflection, sub surface moisture conditions, thin asphalt surface, excessive overloading, in adequate pavement design. If the asphalt surface is thin alligator cracking can quickly develop into potholing.Slippage CrackThey are crescent shaped cracks resulting from the horizontal forces induced by the traffic. They result from the lack of bond between the surface layer and the courses beneath. The lack of bond may be due to dust, oil, rubber, dirt wat er or other non adhesive materials between the two courses. The Slippage cracks may result from the mixtures having a high sand content, as well as due to improper compaction.Linear CrackingThis category includes categories such as joint cracks, construction joints, shoulder joint cracks and diagonal cracks. Transverse and diagonal cracks can result from low temperature contraction of the pavement or from the shrinkage of the cement bound base or sub grade soils .longitudinal cracks in the wheel path may be fatigue related and eventually progress into alligator and a random occurring Longitudinal crack can be indicative of the sideways yielding sub grade or fill area. The cause of joint cracks (thermal and longitudinal) can be related to the thermal stresses or insufficient compaction. They can also be caused by a weak bond in the joint.DistortionPavement distortion is the result of asphalt layer instability or granular base and sub base weakness. Distortion takes a number of forms rutting, shoving, corrugation, depression and up heave.RuttingRuts are channelized depressions in the wheel tracks of the pavement surface. Rutting results from consolidation, lateral movement of the sub grade, aggregate base or asphalt layers under traffic load. Rutting may occur in the sub grade and sub base due to insufficient design thickness, lack of compaction or weakness caused by moisture infiltration, down ward and lateral movement of the weak asphalt mixture under heavy wheel loads.Corrugations and shovingCorrugations and shoving are form of plastic movement typified by ripples across the asphalt pavement surface. They occur in the asphalt mixes that lack mix stability. It may also be caused due to excessive moisture in the granular base, contamination due to oil spillage or lack of aeration when placing mixes using emulsified and cut back asphalts.Settlement or grade depressionDepressions are low areas of limited size that may be accompanied by cracking. They may be cause d by traffic over loading or by consolidation, settlement or failure of the lower pavement layers.Up heave or swellUp heave is the localized upward displacement of the pavement due to the swelling of the sub grade. Up heave is most commonly caused by the expansion of ice in the lower courses of the pavement or sub grade. It may also be caused by the swelling effect of the moisture on the expansive soil.Utility cut or patch failureThis is the failure of the utility installation or of a repaired area in the existing pavement. They usually are caused by lack of adequate compaction of the back fill, base or asphalt patch materials. Patch failures may also result from poor installation techniques, inferior materials or failure of the surrounding materials or under lying pavement.DisintegrationDisintegration is the breaking up of the pavement into small, loose fragments. If the problem is not addressed the pavement disintegrates come along until rehabilitation is required.Raveling/Weathe ringThis is the progressive separation of the aggregate particles from the pavement surface downwards and from the surface inwards. Raveling usually occurs in wheel paths while weathering is found in non traffic zones and it extends over all surface.Raveling is caused by lack of HMA compaction, construction of thin lift during the cold weather, dirty or disintegrating aggregates, as well as little asphalt in the mix or over heating of the asphalt mix. Raveling almost always requires the presence of both water and traffic to occur.PotholesPotholes are bowl shaped holes resulting from the localized disintegration. Most potholes occur in the pavements having thin asphalt concrete surface on an untreated aggregate base. Thin surfaces screening severe alligator cracking begin to lose the pieces of the asphalt out of the cracked area creating potholes.Skid HazardsOne of the most common cause of the luxate hazards in the asphalt pavement is a thin film of water on the pavement surface a nother is the thick film of water on the pavement surface that causes a high speed vehicle to hydro plane. Slipperiness may also develop from the surface contamination such as from oil spillage or certain type of clay etc.Bleeding or flushingBleeding or flushing is the upward movement in the asphalt pavement. This results in the formation of film of asphalt on the surface. Bleeding is identified by the pavement surface with a stick, glassy appearance that may be sticking to touch and usually occurs in hot weather .The most common cause of bleeding is excess asphalt in one or more of the pavement courses .Also traffic may cause the over compaction of the asphalt layers, forcing the binder to the surface.Polished aggregateThese are the aggregate particles on the surface of the pavement that have been polished smooth. Some aggregates, particularly lime stone become polished rather quickly under traffic. Some type of gravel are naturally polished and if they are used in the pavement su rface without crushing they will be a skid hazard. These polished aggregates are quite slippery when they are wet.Surface Treatment DistressesBecause of the construction procedures being used, surface treatments may develop some defects that dont occur in other type of pavement surfaces. These include loss of aggregate cover and streaking. Some of the asphalt pavement distresses such as corrugations, depressions, up heave, potholes and raveling occur most frequently in the pavement constructed with surface treatments.Loss of cover aggregateThis distress is identified by the whipping off of aggregate by traffic from a surface treated pavement. Several things can cause loss of aggregate cover including weather too cool, fast traffic permitted on the new surface treatment too soon, a surface absorbing part of the asphalt, aggregates that are too dusty or too dry etc.Longitudinal / Transverse StreakingLongitudinal streaking is alternate lean and heavy lines of asphalt and/or aggregate rill parallel to the center line of the road .Transverse streaking is the same phenomenon except that the direction is running transverse across the road way. Several things can cause longitudinal streaking including improper height of the spray bar, incorrect asphalt pump speed, asphalt too cold, incorrect pump pressure etc. Transverse cracking is caused by spurts in the asphalt spray from the distributor spray bar. These spurs may be produced by improper pump speed, pulsation of the asphalt pump etc.

Garrett Hardin In lifeboat Ethics: The Case Against The Poor Essay

Garrett Hardin in "Lifeboat Ethics The Case Against the Poor"Garrett Hardin writes about saving the poor in his shew "Lifeboat EthicsThe Case Against the Poor" found in The Blair Reader. Hardin writes about howthe rich countries are in the lifeboat and the poor countries are swimming inthe ocean. He in like manner writes about how the United States helps other countries.Hardin feels that if the government keeps helping other countries and lettingpeople in then America allow also drown. "We must convert them if we wish tosave at least part of the world form environmental ruin"(page 765).Why should I help the poor countries? Why should I let the immigrants in? Isee no reason for helping someone that is not an American. These non Americansare taking my hard-working money that they did not earn.I am tired of the United States of America giving my money to the poorcountries. The government is giving these people my money for which I workedhard. The government d oes not ask for my permit to give these people mymoney. By letting these people on our lifeboat the government is drowning us all."If we do let an extra 10 people in our lifeboat, we will have lost our safetyfactor, an engineering principle of critical importance" (page 757). I cannottake a chance in helping people if it is going to entrust me in risk.Instead of giving the money to non Americans it should be used only inAmerica. The money used to help the poorer countr...

Synopsis of Lines 60 - 129 of Sir Gawain and The Green Knight :: Sir Gawain and The Green Knight

Synopsis of Lines 60 - 129 of Sir Gawain and The Green KnightIn this portion of the poem, the New Year has just begun. King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table have attended mass, and they are just beginning a spectacular celebration at Camelot. We are told the group is participating in traditional gift-giving and feasting. The dais where Lady Guenevere and Sir Gawain are seated is described as well-decked and duly arrayed with silk and expensive tapestries. (Norton, 204) It seems as though no expense has been spared. The fact that Gawain is seated next to the queen tells us of his importance and high status within the group. We learn that he is a nephew of King Arthur and that Agravain, a nonher nephew of the king, is also seated there. King Arthur does not join the others when they sit passel to eat. He is boyish, restless, and full of energy. He has vowed that he will not sit down to eat at a holiday celebration until he hears a tale of rough fair feat or some marvel of might. (Norton, 204) In other words, Arthur behaves like a young child who must be entertained before he will sit down to eat. The poet then tells us about the first course being brought in with the clamor of trumpets that were bravely bedecked with bannerets bright, with noise of new drums and the noble pipes. (Norton, 204-205) Other gilded dishes follow. There is so much food that there is scarcely room to set it all down on the tables. Food, wine and beer are plentiful, and the mood is clear up and festive. In this passage, the knights of the Round Table are presented in their first age. (Norton, 203) The poet easily brings the scene of this traditional celebration to life for the reader with his detailed descriptions of the festivities.